WATER SAFETY

Water is a fundamental human need. Each person on Earth requires at least 20 to 50 liters of clean, safe water a day for drinking, cooking, and simply keeping themselves clean.

Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms even though it provides number of calories or organic nutrients. Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world, but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation.

There is a wide range of both chemical and microbial contaminants that may be found in drinking-water, some of which can have adverse health effects on consumers.

Water from any system can be contaminated from

·         chemicals and minerals that occur naturally, such as arsenic;

·         viruses, bacteria, and parasites;

·         local land-use practices, such as pesticide use;

·         industry; and

·         sewer overflow and failing septic systems.

The objectives of a water safety plan are to ensure safe drinking-water through good water supply practice, that is:

• To prevent contamination of source waters.

• To treat the water to reduce or remove contamination that could be present to the extent necessary to meet the water quality targets.

• To prevent re-contamination during storage, distribution and handling of drinking-water.

Water safety plan essentially consists of three components;

·               System assessment.

·               Operational monitoring.

·               Management plans documentation and communication.

The best way to protect yourself is to avoid local tap water and instead seek out bottled water; when that's not available, boiling tap water generally kills most micro-organisms, and there are a number of good water filters and purification tablets that can easily be stowed in your carry-on.

WATER TESTING

Water is something we all need regardless of where we live and what our lifestyles may be. Without good water supplies people can succumb to all types of illnesses, the majority of which can take lives. This is why water testing, especially of drinking water is so important. 

Testing the water allows a knowledgeable approach to address the specific problems of a water supply. This helps ensure that the water source is being properly protected from potential contamination, and that an appropriate treatment system is selected and is operating properly.The test results allow you to properly address the specific problems of a water supply. This will help ensure that the water source is being properly protected from potential contamination, and that appropriate treatment is selected and operating properly.

Why test my water?

Regular testing is necessary to determine specific water quality problems.

·        To help ensure you are using water suitable for your intended agricultural use.

·        To help ensure that your drinking water is safe.

·        To help determine the effectiveness of your water treatment system.

Basic Water Potability Test packages include tests for coliform bacteria, nitrates, pH, sodium, chloride, fluoride, sulphate, iron, manganese, total dissolved solids, and hardness.

• Coliform bacteria tests indicate the presence of microorganisms in the water that are potentially harmful to human health.

 • Nitrate is a common contaminant found mainly in groundwater. High nitrate concentrations can be particularly dangerous for babies under six months, since nitrate interferes with the ability of blood to carry oxygen.

 • Ions such as sodium, chloride, sulphate, iron, and manganese can impart objectionable taste or odour to water.

• Excessive amounts of sulfate can have a laxative effect or cause gastrointestinal irritation.

• Fluoride is an essential micro-nutrient, but excessive amounts can cause dental problems.

• Total dissolved solids represent the amount of inorganic substances (i.e. sodium, chloride, sulphate) that are dissolved in the water. High total dissolved solids (TDS) can reduce the palatability of water

Other tests may be appropriate if a particular contaminant is suspected in the water. For instance, groundwater sources are sometimes tested for arsenic, selenium, and uranium. Both surface and groundwater sources may also be tested for pesticide contamination.

Domestic water supplies should be tested a minimum of once per year. Drinking water supplies obtained from shallow wells and surface water sources should be tested more frequently (i.e. seasonally), as they are more susceptible to contamination.

It is important to test your drinking water at the tap and at the source. Testing both will help you determine if your treatment system is performing correctly, and if the quality of your source water has changed.

WATER CONTAMINATION

Water contamination occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to the addition of large amounts of materials to the water. The sources of water contamination are categorized as being a point source or a non-source point of contamination. Point sources of contamination occur when the contaminating substance is emitted directly into the waterway. A pipe spewing toxic chemicals directly into a river is an example. A non-point source occurs when there is runoff of pollutants into a waterway, for instance when fertilizer from a field is carried into a stream by surface runoff.

Industrial contamination: Industries produce huge amount of waste which contains toxic chemicals and pollutants which can cause air pollution and damage to us and our environment. They contain pollutants such as lead, mercury, sulphur, asbestos, nitrates and many other harmful chemicals. Many industries do not have proper waste management system and drain the waste in the fresh water which goes into rivers, canals and later in to sea. The toxic chemicals  have the capability to change the color of water, increase the amount of minerals, also known as Eutrophication, change the temperature of water and pose serious hazard to water organisms.

Sewage and waste water: The sewage and waste water that is produced by each household is chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water. The sewage water carries harmful bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious health problems. Pathogens are known as a common water pollutant; The sewers of cities house several pathogens and thereby diseases. Microorganisms in water are known to be causes of some very deadly diseases and become the breeding grounds for other creatures that act like carriers. These carriers inflict these diseases via various forms of contact onto an individual. A very common example of this process would be Malaria.

Accidental Oil leakage: Oil spill pose a huge concern as large amount of oil enters into the sea and does not dissolve with water; there by opens problem for local marine wildlife such as fish, birds and sea otters. For e.g.: a ship carrying large quantity of oil may spill oil if met with an accident and can cause varying damage to species in the ocean depending on the quantity of oil spill, size of ocean, toxicity of pollutant.

Chemical fertilizers and pesticides: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used by farmers to protect crops from insects and bacterias. They are useful for the plants growth. However, when these chemicals are mixed up with water produce harmful for plants and animals. Also, when it rains, the chemicals mixes up with rainwater and flow down into rivers and canals which pose serious damages for aquatic animals.

 Animal waste: The waste produce produce by animals is washed away into the rivers when it rains. It gets mixed up with other harmful chemicals and causes various water borne diseases like cholera, diarrhea, jaundice, dysentery andtyphoid.

FOOD PATHOGEN DETECTION

The detection and enumeration of pathogens in food and on surfaces that come into contact with food are an important component of any integrated program to ensure the safety of foods throughout the food supply chain. Both government authorities and food companies use microbiological analysis to monitor the state of contamination at all times and analyze its trends so as to detect emerging risks. Microbiological analysis is also an essential tool for carrying out tests in accordance with the micro-biological criteria established for each food type, as well as being essential for evaluating the actions of different management strategies based on the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) system. The implementation of preventive systems such as the HACCP has greatly improved food safety, but it will not be fully effective until better methods of analysis are developed. These new detection methods are the necessary technologies that will substantially improve our food safety once integrated in the HACCP.

Microbiological analysis of foods is based on the detection of microorganisms by visual, biochemical, immunological, or genetic means, either before enrichment (quantitative  or  enumerative  methods)  or  after  enrichment  (qualitative  methods, also known as presence/absence tests).

In spite of its importance, the microbiological analysis of food has many limita-tions.  Uncertainty  of  the  analytical  result  must  be  considered  when  establishing microbiological criteria, including the variance associated with the sampling plan, method  of  analysis,  and  laboratory  performance . The microbiological analysis of food remains a challenging task for virtually all assays and technologies, especially for particular pathogenic species.

The problems may be due to

·         The complexity of food matrices and composition.  

·         The heterogeneous distribution of low levels of pathogens.   

·         The stress suffered by the microorganisms during the processing of foods.  

·         The presence of bacteria from the normal microbiota, especially in raw foods.   

The conventional methods used to detect foodborne pathogen are time consuming and laborious. Hence, a variety of methods have been developed for rapid detection of foodborne pathogens as it is required in many food analyses. Rapid detection methods can be categorized into nucleic acid-based, biosensor-based and immunological-based methods. This review emphasizes on the principles and application of recent rapid methods for the detection of foodborne bacterial pathogens. Detection methods included are simple polymerase chain reaction (PCR), multiplex PCR, real-time PCR, nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and oligonucleotide DNAmicroarray which classified as nucleic acid-based methods; optical, electrochemical and mass-based biosensors which classified as biosensor-based methods; enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and lateral flow immunoassay which classified as immunological-based methods. In general, rapid detection methods are generally time-efficient, sensitive, specific and labor-saving. The developments of rapid detection methods are vital in prevention and treatment of foodborne diseases.

FOOD HAZARDS

A food safety hazard refers to any agent with the potential to cause adverse health consequences for consumers. Food safety hazards occur when food is exposed to hazardous agents which result in contamination of that food. Food hazards may be biological, chemical, physical, allergenic, nutritional and/or biotechnology-related.

Hazards may be introduced into the food supply any time during harvesting, formulation and processing, packaging and labelling, transportation, storage, preparation, and serving.

Biological Hazards

Biological hazards occur when hazardous or pathogenic organisms are introduced to food and thus pose a food safety concern to consumers. Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses and parasites of public health significance.

Biological hazards can be introduced to food from the environment (e.g. soil bacteria, agricultural run-off) or from inadequate sanitation practices and cross contamination during transportation, handling, processing, and storage (e.g., poor food hygiene practices). The type and magnitude of microbial growth is determined in part by the nature of the food, package conditions and storage environment.

Chemical Hazards

Chemical hazards occur when chemicals are present in foods at levels that can be hazardous to humans. Contamination may occur through various pathways:

• The environment (air, soil, water),
• Intentional use of chemicals, such as pesticides and veterinary drugs,
• Manufacturing processes,
• Addition of food additives.

In the food industry, there are various types of chemical hazards, some notable ones include:

• Mycotoxins
• Natural Toxins
• Marine Toxins
• Environmental Contaminants
• Food Additives
• Processing-induced chemicals
• Pesticides/Agricultural Products and
• Veterinary Drug Residues

Physical/Extraneous Material Hazards

Extraneous material covers all materials (excluding bacteria and their by-products (toxins), viruses and parasites) which may be found in a food that are foreign to that particular food. These materials are usually non-toxic but are associated with unsanitary conditions of production, processing, handling, storage and distribution of food. Some examples of extraneous materials that may be found in food are insects, hair, metal fragments, pieces of plastic, wood chips and glass.

Allergenic Hazards

An allergen is any protein that is capable of producing an abnormal immune response in sensitive segments of the population. Allergic reactions to food usually involve IgE antibodies. Symptoms of an allergic reaction can range in severity from a skin rash or slight itching of the mouth, to migraine headaches, to anaphylactic shock and death. The type and severity of an allergic response is determined by many factors, including dosage, route of administration, frequency of exposure, and genetic factors. This is not to be confused with a food intolerance which is an abnormal physiological response to a specific food. Symptoms of food intolerance may include cramps, diarrhoea and bloating.

Nutritional Hazards

Nutrients are essential to maintain good health and pertain to a group of substances which includes carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals.

Food fortification refers to the addition of one or more nutrients (vitamins, minerals, and amino acids) to a food product and plays an important role in ensuring the health of Canadians. Adding vitamins and minerals to food helps:

• protect Canadians against nutritional deficiencies - for example, requiring all milk to be fortified with vitamin D virtually eliminated childhood rickets since the 1970s;
• maintain and improve the nutritional quality of the Canadian food supply - for example, enriching flour with B vitamins and iron replaces those same nutrients lost in processing;
• reduce the risk of diet-related chronic diseases - for example, fortification contributes to adequate intakes of calcium and vitamin D which help build strong bones and may reduce the risk of osteoporosis.

FOOD TESTING

Food testing is integral to the efficient production of safe, quality products. With the food industry increasingly subject to scrutiny, testing to ensure compliance with food safety regulations and to protect public health, is a must.

Contaminant testing

Contamination of food products cause damage to the consumer and a brands reputation. Manufacturers play an important role in this process and have a responsibility to follow guidelines and ensure consumer safety.  Microbiological, Physical and Chemical contamination tests including mycotoxins, heavy metals and process contaminants such as acrylamide and dioxins.

Microbiological testing

At every stage in the food supply chain maintaining hygiene, preventing spoilage and avoiding contamination are important priorities for manufacturers. Protecting consumer health by testing for the presence of harmful microorganisms in your food and seafood products can be achieved with reliable microbiology testing.

Microbiologists  use  various technology to test for the presence of Campylobacter, Listeria, Salmonella, E.coli and many more parameters in laboratories around the globe.

Residue testing

Whilst the responsible use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides can help to bolster crop resistance to disease and pests as well as increase yields, the overuse or use of forbidden pesticides can lead to the accumulation of harmful chemical residues.Trace  residue analysis services, helping to ensure your products meet the required standards.

Nutritional labeling and value analysis

Greater consumer demand for product information means that food labelling requirements are becoming increasingly stringent around the globe. Falling short of legislation in their target market can have negative consequences for food operators placing food products onto the market.

Food analysis

Include variety of challenges from food contact materials, shelf life testing,allergens, meat species analysis, food fraud, GMO detection and sensory analysis.

FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

Microbiology is important to food safety, production, processing, preservation, and storage. Food microbiology students use a wide variety of modern technologies from fields including immunology, microbiology, and molecular biology. Microbes such as yeasts, molds, and bacteria are being used for the production of foods and food ingredients. Beneficial microbes are exploited in the fermentative production, processing, and preservation of many foods and beverages. Spoilage microorganisms cost food producers, processors, and consumers millions of dollars annually in lost products. Lost productivity resulting from illness caused by foodborne microorganisms is an enormous economic burden throughout the world. The study of food microbiology includes understanding not only the factors influencing the growth of microorganisms in food systems but also the means of controlling them.

Bacteria, yeasts, molds, and viruses are important in food for their ability to cause foodborne diseases and food spoilage and to produce food and food ingredients Pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and toxins produced by microorganisms are all possible contaminants of food. Microbiological analysis is important to determine the safety and quality of food. Several species of bacteria, molds, and yeasts are considered safe or food grade, or both, and are used to produce fermented foods and food ingredients. Among the four major groups, bacteria constitute the largest group.

 Factors Affecting Growth of Microorganisms

 The food processor reduces potential problems from microorganisms in several ways:

·         Removing or destroying them by trimming, washing, heating, pickling, by adding chemicals, or by encouraging competition by acid- or alcohol-forming organisms.

·         Minimizing contamination from equipment, people, the environment, and from unprocessed food.

·         Minimizing microbial growth on equipment, by cleaning and sanitizing, and in the product itself by adjusting storage temperature, pH, and other environmental factors.

Human illnesses caused by foodborne microorganisms are popularly referred to as food poisoning. The common use of a single classification is due primarily to similarities of symptoms of various food-related diseases (see Table 5). Apart from illness due to food allergy or food sensitivity, foodborne illness may be divided into two major classes, food infection and food intoxication. Food infection results when foods contaminated with pathogenic, invasive, food poisoning bacteria are eaten. These bacteria then proliferate in the human body and eventually cause illness. Food intoxication follows the ingestion of preformed toxic substances which accumulate during the growth of certain bacterial types in foods.

FOOD ADULTERATION

We have all become a little skeptical of the purity and quality standards of the food we consume these days. Food colours, chemicals and additives often creep up not just in our local produce, but even in packaged products. Mixing milk with water to add volume, starch in paneer to make it thicker and fluffier, hydrogenated oils and vanaspati in ghee, and anatta in butter to give it that dark, rich yellow colour, stories like these often shake us up and make us question what we eat. 

Foodadulteration can be intentional when done to add volume, texture, taste or stability to the items. Or it can be due to carelessness or poor maintenance of the facility/logistics on part of the food manufacturer/ distributor. The bottom line is that it can cause serious long term damage to your health.

Adulterants can be of two types:

1) Intentional Adulterants: Some manufacturers mix adulterants like brick powder, chalk powder, dried seeds, stones, marble, addition of harmful colors to food items like spices, pulses (metanil yellow in Turmeric or Carmoisine in Chili powder) with intention to make more profit.

2)  Incidental Adulterants is the contamination due to carelessness and lack of proper hygiene during overall processing of food. It includes contamination due to defective packaging and storage and may result in bacterial or fungal attack. Although, it’s not possible to check for adulteration only on visual examination as adulterants are present in ppm or ppb levels.

The Bureau of Indian standards inspects the various food products manufactured. If the products have the standard quality needed, the certificate in issued. The various certificates of reliability are the F.P.O (Food Products Order) mark, the I.S.I. (Indian Standard Institution) mark and the AGMARK (Agriculture Marketing).

In order to test the purity of the various food items, most of the big cities have food testing laboratories. To keep a check, the officials of the health department take samples of common food products from different shops and send them to the food laboratories for analysis. In case an adulterated food in detected, the manufacturer and the shop-keeper who is selling such a product, is prosecuted and punished. according to the law.

There is hardly any item in the Indian market, which is not adulterated. Research has shown that even fruits, vegetables and cereals, sold in the market, are said to contain high levels of toxic metals like lead, nickel, cadmium, and chromium. Adulteration spares nothing when a spirit of becoming quickly rich, over-rules the moral ground. Even the simple water is not spared. Under the well known brand name-mineral water is reused filling with tube well water and is sold to weary thirsty train passengers. 

FOOD CONTAMINATION

Food contamination refers to the presence in food of harmful chemicals and microorganisms which can cause consumer illness. This article addresses the chemical contamination of foods, as opposed to microbiological contamination, which can be found under foodborne illness.

Causes

Harmful bacteria are the most common cause of food poisoning, but there are many other causes, including the following:

·         Bacteria and Viruses

·         Molds, Toxins, and Contaminants

·         Parasites

·         Allergen

Causes of food poisoning 

Food can become contaminated at any stage during its production, processing or cooking.

For example, it can become contaminated by

not cooking food thoroughly (particularly meat)

·         not correctly storing food that needs to be chilled at below 5C

·         keeping cooked food unrefrigerated for a long period

·         eating food that has been touched by someone who is ill or has been in contact with someone with diarrhoea and vomiting

·         cross-contamination (where harmful bacteria are spread between food, surfaces and equipment)

 Long-Term Effects

Most of them with food poisoning will recover without any lasting effects from their illness. For some, however, the effects can be devastating and even deadly. 

Serious long-term effects associated with several common types of food poisoning include:

·         Kidney failure

·          Chronic arthritis

·         Brain and nerve damage

·         Death

Who's at Risk

Certain groups of people are more susceptible to foodborne illness. This means that they are more likely to get sick from contaminated food and, if they do get sick, the effects are much more serious. These groups include:

·         Pregnant women

·         Older adults

·         Persons with chronic illnesses

Common pathogens found in food

·         Salmonella

·         Campylobacter

·          Staphylococcus aureus

·          Clostridium perfringens